seoTitle	C++ Programming Reference – Modern C++ Syntax and Features
description	Comprehensive C++ reference covering STL, templates, smart pointers, lambdas, move semantics, C++11/14/17/20 features, and object-oriented programming patterns.
keywords	cpp, C++ programming, C++ reference, STL, templates, smart pointers, lambdas, move semantics, C++17, C++20, object-oriented, modern C++, cpp notes, cpp cheatsheet, cpp guide, c++ tutorial, VR-Rathod, Code-Note, code note vr, vr book
displayTitle	C++

History
How:
- Developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 at Bell Labs.
- Originally called "C with Classes", renamed to C++ in 1983.
- Evolved through major standards: C++98, C++03, C++11, C++14, C++17, C++20, C++23.
Who:
- Bjarne Stroustrup — creator of C++, computer scientist at Bell Labs / AT&T.
Why:
- To add object-oriented programming to C while keeping its raw performance.
- To support both low-level system programming and high-level application development.
- To introduce abstractions (classes, templates, RAII) without sacrificing speed.
Introduction
- Advantages
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  - Performance & Control — Direct memory access via pointers, zero-cost abstractions, ideal for games, OS, embedded systems.
  - Multi-Paradigm — Supports procedural, object-oriented, and generic programming (templates).
  - STL — Rich standard library: vectors, maps, algorithms, iterators.
  - RAII — Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ensures safe resource management.
  - Compatibility with C — Can integrate legacy C code directly.
  - Cross-Platform — Compiles on Linux, Windows, macOS, embedded targets.
- Disadvantages
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  - Complex Syntax — Steeper learning curve than Python or Java.
  - Manual Memory Management — Risk of memory leaks and segfaults without smart pointers.
  - Long Compile Times — Heavy template usage can slow builds significantly.
  - No Garbage Collection — Developer is responsible for memory lifecycle.
  - Undefined Behavior — Many operations (out-of-bounds, null deref) are UB, not exceptions.

Basics

Hello World & Entry Point
- ```
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::cout << "Hello, World!" << std::endl;
    return 0;
}
```
- main() is the program entry point, returns int (0 = success).
- #include <iostream> brings in the standard I/O stream library.

Comments

// Single line comment

/* Multi-line
   comment */

/// Doxygen-style doc comment (used for documentation generation)

Variables & Data Types

int age = 25;             // Integer (4 bytes)
float price = 9.99f;      // Single precision float (4 bytes)
double pi = 3.14159265;   // Double precision float (8 bytes)
char grade = 'A';         // Single character (1 byte)
bool isActive = true;     // Boolean (1 byte)
std::string name = "VR bro"; // String (from <string>)

// Constants
const int MAX = 100;
constexpr double TAX = 0.18; // Compile-time constant (C++11)

Primitive Data Types Table

Type          Size        Range
bool          1 byte      true / false
char          1 byte      -128 to 127
int           4 bytes     -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long          8 bytes     -9.2E18 to 9.2E18
float         4 bytes     ~6-7 decimal digits precision
double        8 bytes     ~15-16 decimal digits precision
long double   10/16 bytes extended precision
wchar_t       2/4 bytes   wide character

Type Modifiers

unsigned int u = 4294967295U;  // no negative values
short int s = 32767; // 2 bytes (16 bits) , range -32,768 to 32,767
long long ll = 9223372036854775807LL;
unsigned long long ull = 18446744073709551615ULL;

auto & Type Deduction (C++11)

auto x = 42;          // int
auto y = 3.14;        // double
auto z = "hello";     // const char*
auto s = std::string("hi"); // std::string

// decltype — deduce type from expression
int a = 5;
decltype(a) b = 10;   // b is int

User Input

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

int main() {
    int num;
    std::string name;

    std::cout << "Enter a number: ";
    std::cin >> num;

    std::cout << "Enter your name: ";
    std::cin.ignore();
    std::getline(std::cin, name); // reads full line with spaces

    std::cout << "Hello " << name << ", you entered " << num;
}

Operators

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// Arithmetic
+  -  *  /  %   // add, sub, mul, div, modulo
++x  x++        // pre/post increment
--x  x--        // pre/post decrement

// Relational
==  !=  <  >  <=  >=

// Logical
&&  ||  !

// Bitwise
&   |   ^   ~   <<   >>

// Assignment
=  +=  -=  *=  /=  %=  &=  |=  ^=  <<=  >>=

// Ternary
int max = (a > b) ? a : b;

// sizeof
std::cout << sizeof(int);   // 4

Type Casting

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// C-style (avoid in modern C++)
double d = (double)5 / 2;

// C++ style casts (preferred)
int i = static_cast<int>(3.99);       // 3 — safe compile-time cast

Base* b = new Derived();
Derived* d = dynamic_cast<Derived*>(b); // safe runtime downcast (needs RTTI)

const int ci = 5;
int* p = const_cast<int*>(&ci);        // removes const (use carefully)

int* ip = reinterpret_cast<int*>(0xDEAD); // low-level bit reinterpretation

Control Flow

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if / else if / else

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int score = 85;

if (score >= 90) {
    std::cout << "A";
} else if (score >= 80) {
    std::cout << "B";
} else if (score >= 70) {
    std::cout << "C";
} else {
    std::cout << "F";
}
// Output: B

Switch Statement

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int day = 3;
switch (day) {
    case 1: std::cout << "Monday";    break;
    case 2: std::cout << "Tuesday";   break;
    case 3: std::cout << "Wednesday"; break;
    default: std::cout << "Other";    break;
}

Ternary Operator

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//        condition ? if_true : if_false
int max = (a > b) ? a : b;
std::string label = (age >= 18) ? "Adult" : "Minor";

Loops

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// for loop
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    std::cout << i << " ";
}
// Output: 0 1 2 3 4

// while loop
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
    std::cout << i++;
}

// do-while (executes at least once)
int n = 0;
do {
    std::cout << n++;
} while (n < 3);

// range-based for (C++11)
std::vector<int> nums = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (int n : nums) {
    std::cout << n << " ";
}

// range-based with auto & reference (efficient for large objects)
for (const auto& n : nums) {
    std::cout << n << " ";
}

break / continue / goto

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for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
    if (i == 3) continue; // skip 3
    if (i == 7) break;    // stop at 7
    std::cout << i << " ";
}
// Output: 0 1 2 4 5 6

// goto (avoid in modern code, but valid)
goto end;
std::cout << "skipped";
end:
std::cout << "reached end";

Functions

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Declaration, Definition & Calling

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#include <iostream>

int add(int a, int b); // declaration (prototype)

int main() {
    std::cout << add(3, 4); // calling → 7
}

int add(int a, int b) { // definition
    return a + b;
}

Default Arguments

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void greet(std::string name, std::string msg = "Hello") {
    std::cout << msg << ", " << name;
}

greet("Alice");          // Hello, Alice
greet("Bob", "Hi");      // Hi, Bob

Function Overloading

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int area(int side) { return side * side; }
int area(int w, int h) { return w * h; }
double area(double r) { return 3.14159 * r * r; }

std::cout << area(5);       // 25
std::cout << area(3, 4);    // 12
std::cout << area(2.0);     // 12.566...

Pass by Value, Reference & Pointer

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void byValue(int x) { x = 99; }       // original unchanged
void byRef(int& x) { x = 99; }         // original changed
void byPtr(int* x) { *x = 99; }        // original changed via pointer

int n = 5;
byValue(n); // n = 5
byRef(n);   // n = 99
byPtr(&n);  // n = 99

Inline Functions

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// Hint to compiler to expand function body at call site (avoids call overhead)
inline int square(int x) { return x * x; }

std::cout << square(5); // 25

Recursive Functions

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int factorial(int n) {
    if (n <= 1) return 1;
    return n * factorial(n - 1);
}

std::cout << factorial(5); // 120

Lambda Functions (C++11)

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// [capture](params) -> return_type { body }

auto add = [](int a, int b) { return a + b; };
std::cout << add(3, 4); // 7

int x = 10;
auto addX = [x](int n) { return n + x; };  // capture by value
auto addXRef = [&x](int n) { x += n; };    // capture by reference

// capture all by value [=], all by ref [&]
auto all = [=]() { return x * 2; };

// used with STL algorithms
std::vector<int> v = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5};
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int a, int b) { return a > b; });
// v = {5, 4, 3, 1, 1}

std::function & Function Pointers

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#include <functional>

// Function pointer
int (*fp)(int, int) = add;
std::cout << fp(2, 3); // 5

// std::function — wraps any callable
std::function<int(int, int)> fn = add;
fn = [](int a, int b) { return a * b; };
std::cout << fn(3, 4); // 12

Pointers & References

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Pointers Basics

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int val = 42;
int* ptr = &val;   // ptr holds address of val

std::cout << val;   // 42  — value
std::cout << &val;  // 0x... — address
std::cout << ptr;   // 0x... — same address
std::cout << *ptr;  // 42  — dereference (value at address)

*ptr = 99;          // modifies val through pointer
std::cout << val;   // 99

Pointer Arithmetic

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int arr[] = {10, 20, 30, 40};
int* p = arr;

std::cout << *p;      // 10
std::cout << *(p+1);  // 20
std::cout << *(p+2);  // 30

p++;                  // move to next element
std::cout << *p;      // 20

Null Pointer & nullptr (C++11)

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int* p = nullptr;  // preferred over NULL or 0 in modern C++

if (p != nullptr) {
    std::cout << *p;
} else {
    std::cout << "null pointer";
}

References

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int a = 10;
int& ref = a;  // ref is an alias for a

ref = 20;      // a is now 20
std::cout << a; // 20

// References vs Pointers:
// - References cannot be null, pointers can
// - References cannot be reassigned, pointers can
// - References are safer and cleaner for most use cases

const Pointers

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int x = 5, y = 10;

const int* p1 = &x;    // pointer to const — can't change *p1
int* const p2 = &x;    // const pointer — can't change p2 itself
const int* const p3 = &x; // both const

// p1 = &y;  ✓ (can change where it points)
// *p1 = 9;  ✗ (can't change value)
// p2 = &y;  ✗ (can't change pointer)
// *p2 = 9;  ✓ (can change value)

Dynamic Memory (new / delete)

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// Allocate single value
int* p = new int(42);
std::cout << *p;  // 42
delete p;         // free memory
p = nullptr;      // good practice

// Allocate array
int* arr = new int[5]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
std::cout << arr[2]; // 3
delete[] arr;        // must use delete[] for arrays

// Prefer smart pointers over raw new/delete in modern C++

Arrays & Strings

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C-Style Arrays

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int marks[5] = {92, 87, 95, 78, 88};

std::cout << marks[0];  // 92
marks[1] = 99;

// size of array
int size = sizeof(marks) / sizeof(marks[0]); // 5

// 2D array
int grid[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
std::cout << grid[1][2]; // 6

std::array (C++11) — Preferred over C arrays

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#include <array>

std::array<int, 5> arr = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

std::cout << arr[0];        // 1
std::cout << arr.size();    // 5
std::cout << arr.front();   // 1
std::cout << arr.back();    // 5
arr.fill(0);                // set all to 0

// iterate
for (const auto& x : arr) std::cout << x << " ";

std::string

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#include <string>

std::string s = "Hello, World!";

std::cout << s.length();        // 13
std::cout << s.size();          // 13 (same as length)
std::cout << s[0];              // H
std::cout << s.substr(7, 5);    // World
std::cout << s.find("World");   // 7

s += " C++";                    // concatenation
s.replace(7, 5, "C++");        // replace "World" with "C++"
s.erase(5, 2);                 // erase 2 chars at index 5

// convert
int n = std::stoi("42");        // string to int
std::string str = std::to_string(99); // int to string

// compare
if (s == "Hello") { ... }
if (s.compare("Hello") == 0) { ... }

// empty check
if (s.empty()) { ... }

String Views (C++17) — Zero-copy string reference

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#include <string_view>

void print(std::string_view sv) {
    std::cout << sv;  // no copy made
}

std::string s = "Hello";
print(s);         // works with std::string
print("World");   // works with string literals

OOP — Object-Oriented Programming

[[DSA Algo & System Design]] - visit this page for in-depth Learning

Classes & Objects

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class Car {
public:
    std::string brand;
    int year;

    void display() {
        std::cout << brand << " (" << year << ")\n";
    }
};

Car c;
c.brand = "Toyota";
c.year = 2022;
c.display(); // Toyota (2022)

Constructors & Destructors

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class Person {
public:
    std::string name;
    int age;

    // Default constructor
    Person() : name("Unknown"), age(0) {}

    // Parameterized constructor
    Person(std::string n, int a) : name(n), age(a) {}

    // Copy constructor
    Person(const Person& other) : name(other.name), age(other.age) {}

    // Destructor
    ~Person() {
        std::cout << name << " destroyed\n";
    }

    void show() { std::cout << name << ", " << age << "\n"; }
};

Person p1("Alice", 30);
Person p2 = p1;          // copy constructor
p1.show();               // Alice, 30

Access Modifiers

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class BankAccount {
public:
    std::string owner;    // accessible everywhere

protected:
    double balance;       // accessible in class + subclasses

private:
    std::string pin;      // accessible only inside this class
};

Getters & Setters (Encapsulation)

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class Temperature {
private:
    double celsius;

public:
    void setCelsius(double c) {
        if (c >= -273.15) celsius = c;
    }
    double getCelsius() const { return celsius; }
    double getFahrenheit() const { return celsius * 9.0/5.0 + 32; }
};

Temperature t;
t.setCelsius(100);
std::cout << t.getFahrenheit(); // 212

Static Members

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class Counter {
public:
    static int count;  // shared across all instances

    Counter() { count++; }
    ~Counter() { count--; }

    static int getCount() { return count; } // static method
};

int Counter::count = 0; // must define outside class

Counter a, b, c;
std::cout << Counter::getCount(); // 3

Friend Functions & Classes

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class Box {
private:
    double width;
public:
    Box(double w) : width(w) {}
    friend double getWidth(Box b); // friend function declaration
};

double getWidth(Box b) {
    return b.width; // can access private member
}

Box b(5.5);
std::cout << getWidth(b); // 5.5

Operator Overloading

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class Vector2D {
public:
    float x, y;
    Vector2D(float x, float y) : x(x), y(y) {}

    // Overload +
    Vector2D operator+(const Vector2D& other) const {
        return Vector2D(x + other.x, y + other.y);
    }

    // Overload <<
    friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const Vector2D& v) {
        return os << "(" << v.x << ", " << v.y << ")";
    }
};

Vector2D a(1, 2), b(3, 4);
std::cout << a + b; // (4, 6)

OOP — Inheritance

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Single Inheritance

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class Animal {
public:
    std::string name;
    Animal(std::string n) : name(n) {}
    void eat() { std::cout << name << " is eating\n"; }
};

class Dog : public Animal {
public:
    Dog(std::string n) : Animal(n) {}
    void bark() { std::cout << name << " says Woof!\n"; }
};

Dog d("Rex");
d.eat();   // Rex is eating
d.bark();  // Rex says Woof!

Inheritance Types

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class Base { ... };

class PublicDerived    : public Base    { ... }; // public → public, protected → protected
class ProtectedDerived : protected Base { ... }; // public → protected
class PrivateDerived   : private Base   { ... }; // all → private

Multi-Level & Multiple Inheritance

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// Multi-level
class A { public: void hello() { std::cout << "A\n"; } };
class B : public A {};
class C : public B {};  // C inherits from B which inherits from A

C obj;
obj.hello(); // A

// Multiple inheritance
class Flyable { public: void fly() { std::cout << "Flying\n"; } };
class Swimmable { public: void swim() { std::cout << "Swimming\n"; } };

class Duck : public Flyable, public Swimmable {};

Duck d;
d.fly();   // Flying
d.swim();  // Swimming

Virtual Inheritance (Diamond Problem Fix)

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class A { public: int x = 1; };
class B : virtual public A {};
class C : virtual public A {};
class D : public B, public C {}; // only one copy of A

D obj;
std::cout << obj.x; // 1 — no ambiguity

Constructor Chaining

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class Shape {
public:
    std::string color;
    Shape(std::string c) : color(c) {
        std::cout << "Shape created\n";
    }
};

class Circle : public Shape {
public:
    double radius;
    Circle(std::string c, double r) : Shape(c), radius(r) {
        std::cout << "Circle created\n";
    }
};

Circle ci("red", 5.0);
// Output:
// Shape created
// Circle created

OOP — Polymorphism

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Virtual Functions & Runtime Polymorphism

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class Shape {
public:
    virtual double area() const { return 0; }  // virtual
    virtual void draw() const { std::cout << "Drawing shape\n"; }
    virtual ~Shape() {}  // always virtual destructor in base class
};

class Circle : public Shape {
    double r;
public:
    Circle(double r) : r(r) {}
    double area() const override { return 3.14159 * r * r; }
    void draw() const override { std::cout << "Drawing circle\n"; }
};

class Rectangle : public Shape {
    double w, h;
public:
    Rectangle(double w, double h) : w(w), h(h) {}
    double area() const override { return w * h; }
    void draw() const override { std::cout << "Drawing rectangle\n"; }
};

// Polymorphic usage via base pointer
Shape* s1 = new Circle(5);
Shape* s2 = new Rectangle(4, 6);

s1->draw();           // Drawing circle
s2->draw();           // Drawing rectangle
std::cout << s1->area(); // 78.539...

delete s1; delete s2;

Pure Virtual Functions & Abstract Classes

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class Animal {
public:
    virtual void sound() = 0;  // pure virtual — makes class abstract
    virtual ~Animal() {}
};

// Animal a; // ERROR — cannot instantiate abstract class

class Dog : public Animal {
public:
    void sound() override { std::cout << "Woof!\n"; }
};

class Cat : public Animal {
public:
    void sound() override { std::cout << "Meow!\n"; }
};

Animal* a = new Dog();
a->sound(); // Woof!
delete a;

override & final (C++11)

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class Base {
public:
    virtual void foo() {}
    virtual void bar() {}
};

class Derived : public Base {
public:
    void foo() override {}       // override — compiler checks it actually overrides
    void bar() override final {} // final — no further override allowed
};

class Leaf : public Derived {
    // void bar() override {} // ERROR — bar is final
};

vtable & vptr (How Virtual Works Internally)
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- Each class with virtual functions has a vtable (virtual function table).
- Each object has a hidden vptr pointing to its class's vtable.
- At runtime, the correct function is looked up via the vtable — this is dynamic dispatch.
- ```
// Conceptually:
// Circle vtable → { &Circle::area, &Circle::draw }
// Rectangle vtable → { &Rectangle::area, &Rectangle::draw }

Shape* s = new Circle(3);
s->area(); // looks up Circle::area via vptr → vtable
```

OOP — Advanced Concepts

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Rule of Three / Five / Zero

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// Rule of Three: if you define any of these, define all three:
// destructor, copy constructor, copy assignment operator

// Rule of Five (C++11): also define move constructor & move assignment

class Buffer {
    int* data;
    size_t size;
public:
    Buffer(size_t s) : size(s), data(new int[s]) {}

    ~Buffer() { delete[] data; }                          // destructor

    Buffer(const Buffer& o) : size(o.size), data(new int[o.size]) {
        std::copy(o.data, o.data + size, data);           // copy constructor
    }

    Buffer& operator=(const Buffer& o) {                  // copy assignment
        if (this != &o) {
            delete[] data;
            size = o.size;
            data = new int[size];
            std::copy(o.data, o.data + size, data);
        }
        return *this;
    }

    Buffer(Buffer&& o) noexcept : size(o.size), data(o.data) { // move constructor
        o.data = nullptr; o.size = 0;
    }

    Buffer& operator=(Buffer&& o) noexcept {              // move assignment
        if (this != &o) {
            delete[] data;
            data = o.data; size = o.size;
            o.data = nullptr; o.size = 0;
        }
        return *this;
    }
};

// Rule of Zero: use smart pointers/STL — no manual resource management needed

Move Semantics & rvalue References (C++11)

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std::string a = "Hello";
std::string b = std::move(a); // moves a's data into b — no copy
// a is now in valid but unspecified state

// rvalue reference: T&&
void process(std::string&& s) {
    std::cout << "moved: " << s;
}
process(std::move(b));

// std::move doesn't move — it casts to rvalue reference
// actual move happens in move constructor/assignment

RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization)

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// Core C++ idiom: tie resource lifetime to object lifetime
// Resource acquired in constructor, released in destructor

class FileHandle {
    FILE* file;
public:
    FileHandle(const char* path) {
        file = fopen(path, "r");
        if (!file) throw std::runtime_error("Cannot open file");
    }
    ~FileHandle() {
        if (file) fclose(file); // always released, even on exception
    }
    FILE* get() { return file; }
};

{
    FileHandle f("data.txt"); // acquired
    // use f.get()...
} // destructor called here — file closed automatically

Smart Pointers (C++11)

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unique_ptr — Exclusive Ownership

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#include <memory>

std::unique_ptr<int> p = std::make_unique<int>(42);
std::cout << *p; // 42

// cannot copy, only move
std::unique_ptr<int> p2 = std::move(p);
// p is now nullptr

// with custom class
auto obj = std::make_unique<Person>("Alice", 30);
obj->show();
// automatically deleted when out of scope — no delete needed

shared_ptr — Shared Ownership

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auto sp1 = std::make_shared<int>(100);
auto sp2 = sp1;  // both own the resource

std::cout << sp1.use_count(); // 2 — reference count
std::cout << *sp1;            // 100

sp1.reset(); // sp1 releases ownership
std::cout << sp2.use_count(); // 1
// resource deleted when last shared_ptr goes out of scope

weak_ptr — Non-Owning Observer

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// Breaks circular references between shared_ptrs
auto sp = std::make_shared<int>(50);
std::weak_ptr<int> wp = sp;

std::cout << wp.use_count(); // 1 (weak_ptr doesn't increase count)

if (auto locked = wp.lock()) { // lock() returns shared_ptr if still alive
    std::cout << *locked;      // 50
}

sp.reset(); // resource freed
std::cout << wp.expired(); // 1 (true — resource gone)

Smart Pointer Comparison

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Type          Ownership       Copyable    Use Case
unique_ptr    Exclusive        No         Single owner, factory returns
shared_ptr    Shared (ref cnt) Yes        Multiple owners, shared data
weak_ptr      None (observer)  Yes        Break cycles, cache, observer

Templates & Generic Programming

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Function Templates

collapsed:: true

template <typename T>
T maxOf(T a, T b) {
    return (a > b) ? a : b;
}

std::cout << maxOf(3, 7);       // 7 (int)
std::cout << maxOf(3.5, 2.1);   // 3.5 (double)
std::cout << maxOf('a', 'z');   // z (char)

// Multiple type params
template <typename T, typename U>
auto add(T a, U b) -> decltype(a + b) {
    return a + b;
}

Class Templates

collapsed:: true

template <typename T>
class Stack {
    std::vector<T> data;
public:
    void push(T val) { data.push_back(val); }
    void pop() { data.pop_back(); }
    T top() const { return data.back(); }
    bool empty() const { return data.empty(); }
};

Stack<int> si;
si.push(1); si.push(2); si.push(3);
std::cout << si.top(); // 3

Stack<std::string> ss;
ss.push("hello");

Template Specialization

collapsed:: true

template <typename T>
void print(T val) { std::cout << "Generic: " << val; }

// Full specialization for bool
template <>
void print<bool>(bool val) {
    std::cout << (val ? "true" : "false");
}

print(42);    // Generic: 42
print(true);  // true

Variadic Templates (C++11)

collapsed:: true

// Accept any number of arguments of any types
template <typename... Args>
void log(Args... args) {
    (std::cout << ... << args) << "\n"; // fold expression (C++17)
}

log("Value: ", 42, " and ", 3.14);
// Output: Value: 42 and 3.14

Concepts (C++20) — Constrained Templates

collapsed:: true

#include <concepts>

// Define a concept
template <typename T>
concept Numeric = std::integral<T> || std::floating_point<T>;

// Use concept to constrain template
template <Numeric T>
T square(T x) { return x * x; }

std::cout << square(5);    // 25
std::cout << square(2.5);  // 6.25
// square("hi");           // compile error — not Numeric

// Shorthand with auto
auto multiply(Numeric auto a, Numeric auto b) { return a * b; }

STL — Standard Template Library

collapsed:: true

Containers Overview

collapsed:: true

Container         Type              Use Case
vector            Sequence          Dynamic array, fast random access
deque             Sequence          Fast insert/remove at both ends
list              Sequence          Fast insert/remove anywhere
array             Sequence          Fixed-size array
stack             Adaptor           LIFO
queue             Adaptor           FIFO
priority_queue    Adaptor           Max-heap by default
set               Associative       Unique sorted keys
multiset          Associative       Sorted keys, duplicates allowed
map               Associative       Key-value, sorted by key
multimap          Associative       Key-value, duplicate keys allowed
unordered_set     Unordered         Hash set, O(1) avg lookup
unordered_map     Unordered         Hash map, O(1) avg lookup

vector

collapsed:: true

#include <vector>

std::vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3};

v.push_back(4);       // {1,2,3,4}
v.pop_back();         // {1,2,3}
v.insert(v.begin()+1, 99); // {1,99,2,3}
v.erase(v.begin()+1); // {1,2,3}

std::cout << v[0];    // 1
std::cout << v.at(1); // 2 (bounds-checked)
std::cout << v.size();// 3
std::cout << v.front(); // 1
std::cout << v.back();  // 3

v.reserve(100);       // pre-allocate capacity
v.clear();            // remove all elements

// iterate
for (auto& x : v) std::cout << x << " ";

map & unordered_map

collapsed:: true

#include <map>
#include <unordered_map>

std::map<std::string, int> scores;
scores["Alice"] = 95;
scores["Bob"] = 87;
scores.insert({"Charlie", 91});

std::cout << scores["Alice"];   // 95
std::cout << scores.count("Bob"); // 1 (exists)
scores.erase("Bob");

for (const auto& [key, val] : scores) { // structured bindings C++17
    std::cout << key << ": " << val << "\n";
}

// unordered_map — O(1) avg, no ordering
std::unordered_map<std::string, int> umap;
umap["x"] = 10;

set & unordered_set

collapsed:: true

#include <set>

std::set<int> s = {5, 3, 1, 4, 2};
// automatically sorted: {1,2,3,4,5}

s.insert(6);
s.erase(3);
std::cout << s.count(4); // 1 (exists)

for (int x : s) std::cout << x << " "; // 1 2 4 5 6

stack, queue, priority_queue

collapsed:: true

#include <stack>
#include <queue>

// Stack (LIFO)
std::stack<int> st;
st.push(1); st.push(2); st.push(3);
std::cout << st.top(); // 3
st.pop();

// Queue (FIFO)
std::queue<int> q;
q.push(1); q.push(2); q.push(3);
std::cout << q.front(); // 1
q.pop();

// Priority Queue (max-heap by default)
std::priority_queue<int> pq;
pq.push(3); pq.push(1); pq.push(5);
std::cout << pq.top(); // 5

// Min-heap
std::priority_queue<int, std::vector<int>, std::greater<int>> minpq;
minpq.push(3); minpq.push(1); minpq.push(5);
std::cout << minpq.top(); // 1

STL Algorithms

collapsed:: true

#include <algorithm>
#include <numeric>

std::vector<int> v = {5, 3, 1, 4, 2};

std::sort(v.begin(), v.end());              // {1,2,3,4,5}
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end(), std::greater<int>()); // {5,4,3,2,1}

std::reverse(v.begin(), v.end());

auto it = std::find(v.begin(), v.end(), 3);
if (it != v.end()) std::cout << "found at " << (it - v.begin());

int sum = std::accumulate(v.begin(), v.end(), 0); // sum all
int mx  = *std::max_element(v.begin(), v.end());
int mn  = *std::min_element(v.begin(), v.end());

std::count(v.begin(), v.end(), 3);          // count occurrences of 3

// transform — apply function to each element
std::transform(v.begin(), v.end(), v.begin(), [](int x){ return x * 2; });

// remove_if + erase idiom
v.erase(std::remove_if(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int x){ return x % 2 == 0; }), v.end());

// binary search (requires sorted range)
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end());
bool found = std::binary_search(v.begin(), v.end(), 3);

Iterators

collapsed:: true

std::vector<int> v = {10, 20, 30, 40};

auto it = v.begin();   // iterator to first element
auto end = v.end();    // iterator past last element

std::cout << *it;      // 10
++it;
std::cout << *it;      // 20

// reverse iterator
for (auto rit = v.rbegin(); rit != v.rend(); ++rit)
    std::cout << *rit << " "; // 40 30 20 10

// const iterator
for (auto cit = v.cbegin(); cit != v.cend(); ++cit)
    std::cout << *cit << " ";

Exception Handling

collapsed:: true

try / catch / throw

collapsed:: true

#include <stdexcept>

double divide(double a, double b) {
    if (b == 0) throw std::invalid_argument("Division by zero");
    return a / b;
}

try {
    std::cout << divide(10, 2);  // 5
    std::cout << divide(10, 0);  // throws
} catch (const std::invalid_argument& e) {
    std::cerr << "Error: " << e.what();
} catch (const std::exception& e) {
    std::cerr << "Exception: " << e.what();
} catch (...) {
    std::cerr << "Unknown exception";
}

Standard Exception Hierarchy

collapsed:: true

std::exception
├── std::logic_error
│   ├── std::invalid_argument
│   ├── std::out_of_range
│   └── std::length_error
└── std::runtime_error
    ├── std::overflow_error
    ├── std::underflow_error
    └── std::range_error

Custom Exceptions

collapsed:: true

class AppError : public std::exception {
    std::string msg;
public:
    AppError(std::string m) : msg(m) {}
    const char* what() const noexcept override { return msg.c_str(); }
};

throw AppError("Something went wrong");

noexcept (C++11)

collapsed:: true

void safeFunc() noexcept {
    // guarantees no exception is thrown
    // if one is thrown, std::terminate() is called
}

// noexcept is important for move constructors — enables optimizations
Buffer(Buffer&& o) noexcept { ... }

Modern C++ Features

collapsed:: true

C++11 Key Features

collapsed:: true

// auto type deduction
auto x = 42;

// Range-based for
for (const auto& item : container) { ... }

// nullptr
int* p = nullptr;

// Lambda expressions
auto fn = [](int x) { return x * 2; };

// Smart pointers
auto sp = std::make_shared<MyClass>();

// Move semantics
std::string s = std::move(other);

// Initializer lists
std::vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

// constexpr
constexpr int SIZE = 256;

// static_assert
static_assert(sizeof(int) == 4, "int must be 4 bytes");

// Delegating constructors
class Foo {
    Foo(int x) : Foo(x, 0) {}
    Foo(int x, int y) { ... }
};

// override & final
void foo() override final {}

// Scoped enums
enum class Color { Red, Green, Blue };
Color c = Color::Red;

C++14 Key Features

collapsed:: true

// Generic lambdas
auto add = [](auto a, auto b) { return a + b; };

// Return type deduction
auto square(int x) { return x * x; }

// std::make_unique
auto p = std::make_unique<int>(42);

// Binary literals & digit separators
int flags = 0b1010'1010;
long big = 1'000'000;

C++17 Key Features

collapsed:: true

// Structured bindings
auto [x, y] = std::pair{1, 2};
for (auto& [key, val] : myMap) { ... }

// if constexpr — compile-time branching
template <typename T>
void process(T val) {
    if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<T>) {
        std::cout << "integer: " << val;
    } else {
        std::cout << "other: " << val;
    }
}

// std::optional — value that may or may not exist
#include <optional>
std::optional<int> findValue(bool found) {
    if (found) return 42;
    return std::nullopt;
}
auto val = findValue(true);
if (val) std::cout << *val; // 42

// std::variant — type-safe union
#include <variant>
std::variant<int, double, std::string> v = "hello";
std::cout << std::get<std::string>(v);

// std::any — holds any type
#include <any>
std::any a = 42;
a = std::string("hello");
std::cout << std::any_cast<std::string>(a);

// Filesystem
#include <filesystem>
namespace fs = std::filesystem;
fs::create_directory("mydir");
for (auto& entry : fs::directory_iterator(".")) {
    std::cout << entry.path() << "\n";
}

// Parallel algorithms
#include <execution>
std::sort(std::execution::par, v.begin(), v.end());

C++20 Key Features

collapsed:: true

// Concepts (see Templates section)
template <std::integral T>
T gcd(T a, T b) { return b ? gcd(b, a % b) : a; }

// Ranges — composable, lazy algorithms
#include <ranges>
auto v = std::vector{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10};
auto result = v | std::views::filter([](int x){ return x % 2 == 0; })
                | std::views::transform([](int x){ return x * x; });
for (int x : result) std::cout << x << " "; // 4 16 36 64 100

// Coroutines (co_await, co_yield, co_return)
#include <coroutine>
// Used for async code, generators, lazy sequences

// std::span — non-owning view over contiguous data
#include <span>
void process(std::span<int> data) {
    for (int x : data) std::cout << x;
}
int arr[] = {1,2,3};
process(arr);

// Three-way comparison operator <=>
auto result = (5 <=> 3); // std::strong_ordering::greater

// Modules (replaces #include for large projects)
// import std;  // import entire standard library (compiler support varies)

// consteval — must be evaluated at compile time
consteval int square(int x) { return x * x; }
constexpr int s = square(5); // 25

C++23 Highlights

collapsed:: true

// std::print / std::println (finally!)
#include <print>
std::println("Hello, {}!", "World");
std::print("x = {}, y = {}\n", 1, 2);

// std::expected — error handling without exceptions
#include <expected>
std::expected<int, std::string> divide(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) return std::unexpected("division by zero");
    return a / b;
}
auto r = divide(10, 2);
if (r) std::cout << *r;
else std::cout << r.error();

// std::flat_map / std::flat_set — cache-friendly sorted containers
// Deducing this (explicit object parameter)
struct Widget {
    auto& value(this auto& self) { return self.val; }
    int val;
};

Concurrency & Multithreading

collapsed:: true

std::thread (C++11)

collapsed:: true

#include <thread>
#include <iostream>

void task(int id) {
    std::cout << "Thread " << id << " running\n";
}

int main() {
    std::thread t1(task, 1);
    std::thread t2(task, 2);

    t1.join(); // wait for t1 to finish
    t2.join(); // wait for t2 to finish

    // t.detach() — run independently (fire and forget)
}

Mutex & Lock Guard

collapsed:: true

#include <mutex>

std::mutex mtx;
int counter = 0;

void increment() {
    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(mtx); // RAII lock — auto-unlocks
    counter++;
}

// unique_lock — more flexible (can unlock manually)
void process() {
    std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(mtx);
    // do work...
    lock.unlock();
    // do non-critical work...
    lock.lock();
}

Condition Variables

collapsed:: true

#include <condition_variable>

std::mutex mtx;
std::condition_variable cv;
bool ready = false;

void worker() {
    std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(mtx);
    cv.wait(lock, []{ return ready; }); // wait until ready == true
    std::cout << "Worker running\n";
}

void producer() {
    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(mtx);
    ready = true;
    cv.notify_one(); // wake one waiting thread
}

std::async & std::future

collapsed:: true

#include <future>

int compute(int x) { return x * x; }

// Launch async task
std::future<int> f = std::async(std::launch::async, compute, 5);

// Do other work...

int result = f.get(); // blocks until result is ready
std::cout << result;  // 25

// std::promise — manually set a future value
std::promise<int> p;
std::future<int> fut = p.get_future();
std::thread t([&p]{ p.set_value(42); });
std::cout << fut.get(); // 42
t.join();

Atomic Operations (C++11)

collapsed:: true

#include <atomic>

std::atomic<int> counter{0};

void increment() {
    counter++;           // atomic — thread-safe, no mutex needed
    counter.fetch_add(1); // explicit atomic add
}

std::cout << counter.load(); // atomic read
counter.store(0);            // atomic write

// Compare-and-swap
int expected = 5;
counter.compare_exchange_strong(expected, 10);
// if counter == 5, set to 10; else load current into expected

File I/O

collapsed:: true

Reading & Writing Files

collapsed:: true

#include <fstream>
#include <string>

// Write to file
std::ofstream outFile("data.txt");
if (outFile.is_open()) {
    outFile << "Hello, File!\n";
    outFile << "Line 2\n";
    outFile.close();
}

// Read from file
std::ifstream inFile("data.txt");
std::string line;
while (std::getline(inFile, line)) {
    std::cout << line << "\n";
}
inFile.close();

// Append to file
std::ofstream appendFile("data.txt", std::ios::app);
appendFile << "Appended line\n";

Binary File I/O

collapsed:: true

struct Point { int x, y; };

// Write binary
std::ofstream out("points.bin", std::ios::binary);
Point p{10, 20};
out.write(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&p), sizeof(p));

// Read binary
std::ifstream in("points.bin", std::ios::binary);
Point q;
in.read(reinterpret_cast<char*>(&q), sizeof(q));
std::cout << q.x << ", " << q.y; // 10, 20

String Streams

collapsed:: true

#include <sstream>

// Build string with stream
std::ostringstream oss;
oss << "Name: " << "Alice" << ", Age: " << 30;
std::string result = oss.str();

// Parse string
std::istringstream iss("10 20 30");
int a, b, c;
iss >> a >> b >> c; // a=10, b=20, c=30

Namespaces

collapsed:: true

Defining & Using Namespaces

collapsed:: true

namespace Math {
    const double PI = 3.14159;
    int square(int x) { return x * x; }

    namespace Trig {
        double sin(double x) { return std::sin(x); }
    }
}

std::cout << Math::PI;              // 3.14159
std::cout << Math::square(5);       // 25
std::cout << Math::Trig::sin(0.5);  // nested namespace

// using declaration
using Math::square;
std::cout << square(4); // 16

// using directive (avoid in headers)
using namespace Math;
std::cout << PI; // 3.14159

// Inline namespace (C++11) — for versioning
namespace Lib {
    inline namespace v2 {
        void func() { std::cout << "v2"; }
    }
}
Lib::func(); // calls v2::func

Anonymous Namespaces

collapsed:: true

// Limits visibility to current translation unit (like static in C)
namespace {
    int internalHelper() { return 42; }
}
// internalHelper() only accessible in this .cpp file

Preprocessor & Compilation

collapsed:: true

Preprocessor Directives

collapsed:: true

#include <iostream>    // system header
#include "myfile.h"    // local header

#define PI 3.14159
#define MAX(a,b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
#undef PI

#ifdef DEBUG
    std::cout << "Debug mode\n";
#elif defined VERBOSE
    std::cout << "Verbose mode\n";
#else
    std::cout << "Release mode\n";
#endif

#ifndef MYHEADER_H
#define MYHEADER_H
// header content
#endif

#pragma once  // modern alternative to include guards

#error "Unsupported platform"  // compile-time error

Predefined Macros

collapsed:: true

__FILE__      // current filename
__LINE__      // current line number
__DATE__      // compilation date "MMM DD YYYY"
__TIME__      // compilation time "HH:MM:SS"
__cplusplus   // C++ standard version (201703L = C++17, 202002L = C++20)
__func__      // current function name (C++11)

Header Files & Compilation Model

collapsed:: true

// myclass.h — declaration
#pragma once
class MyClass {
public:
    void hello();
};

// myclass.cpp — definition
#include "myclass.h"
#include <iostream>
void MyClass::hello() {
    std::cout << "Hello!\n";
}

// main.cpp
#include "myclass.h"
int main() {
    MyClass obj;
    obj.hello();
}

// Compile:
// g++ main.cpp myclass.cpp -o app

Advanced Topics

collapsed:: true

Type Traits (C++11)

collapsed:: true

#include <type_traits>

std::is_integral<int>::value      // true
std::is_floating_point<double>::value // true
std::is_pointer<int*>::value       // true
std::is_same<int, int>::value      // true
std::is_base_of<Base, Derived>::value // true

// Shorthand (C++17)
std::is_integral_v<int>            // true
std::is_same_v<int, float>         // false

// Conditional type
std::conditional_t<true, int, double>  // int
std::conditional_t<false, int, double> // double

// Remove/add qualifiers
std::remove_const_t<const int>     // int
std::add_pointer_t<int>            // int*

SFINAE & enable_if (Pre-C++20)

collapsed:: true

// Substitution Failure Is Not An Error
// Enable function only for integral types
template <typename T>
typename std::enable_if_t<std::is_integral_v<T>, T>
double_it(T x) { return x * 2; }

double_it(5);    // works
// double_it(3.14); // compile error — not integral

// C++20 Concepts are cleaner — prefer those

constexpr & Compile-Time Programming

collapsed:: true

constexpr int factorial(int n) {
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : n * factorial(n - 1);
}

constexpr int f5 = factorial(5); // computed at compile time: 120

// constexpr if (C++17)
template <typename T>
auto process(T val) {
    if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<T>)
        return val * 2;
    else
        return val + 0.5;
}

// consteval (C++20) — MUST be compile-time
consteval int square(int x) { return x * x; }

Memory Model & Alignment

collapsed:: true

// alignas — specify alignment
alignas(16) float simdData[4]; // 16-byte aligned for SIMD

// alignof — query alignment
std::cout << alignof(double); // typically 8

// std::aligned_storage (C++11)
std::aligned_storage_t<sizeof(int), alignof(int)> storage;

// Placement new — construct in pre-allocated memory
char buf[sizeof(MyClass)];
MyClass* obj = new (buf) MyClass(); // construct in buf
obj->~MyClass();                    // must manually call destructor

Design Patterns in C++

collapsed:: true

// Singleton
class Singleton {
    static Singleton* instance;
    Singleton() {}
public:
    static Singleton& getInstance() {
        static Singleton inst; // thread-safe in C++11
        return inst;
    }
};

// Factory
class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };
class Circle : public Shape { public: void draw() override { std::cout << "Circle\n"; } };
class Square : public Shape { public: void draw() override { std::cout << "Square\n"; } };

std::unique_ptr<Shape> createShape(std::string type) {
    if (type == "circle") return std::make_unique<Circle>();
    if (type == "square") return std::make_unique<Square>();
    return nullptr;
}

// Observer
class Observer { public: virtual void update(int val) = 0; };
class Subject {
    std::vector<Observer*> observers;
    int state;
public:
    void attach(Observer* o) { observers.push_back(o); }
    void setState(int s) {
        state = s;
        for (auto* o : observers) o->update(state);
    }
};

Structured Bindings (C++17)

collapsed:: true

// Unpack pairs, tuples, structs, arrays
auto [x, y] = std::make_pair(1, 2);

std::tuple<int, std::string, double> t{1, "hello", 3.14};
auto [id, name, score] = t;

struct Point { int x, y; };
Point p{10, 20};
auto [px, py] = p;

// In range-based for
std::map<std::string, int> m{{"a", 1}, {"b", 2}};
for (auto& [key, val] : m) {
    std::cout << key << "=" << val << "\n";
}

Utilities & Practical STL

collapsed:: true

std::pair & std::tuple

collapsed:: true

#include <utility>
#include <tuple>

// pair — two values
std::pair<std::string, int> p = {"Alice", 30};
std::cout << p.first << ", " << p.second; // Alice, 30

auto p2 = std::make_pair("Bob", 25);

// tuple — N values of different types
std::tuple<int, std::string, double> t = {1, "hello", 3.14};

std::cout << std::get<0>(t); // 1
std::cout << std::get<1>(t); // hello
std::cout << std::get<2>(t); // 3.14

auto t2 = std::make_tuple(42, "world", 2.71);

// structured binding (C++17)
auto [id, name, score] = t;

// tie — unpack into existing variables
int a; std::string b;
std::tie(a, b, std::ignore) = t;

std::deque, std::list, std::forward_list

collapsed:: true

#include <deque>
#include <list>
#include <forward_list>

// deque — double-ended queue, fast insert/remove at both ends
std::deque<int> dq = {2, 3, 4};
dq.push_front(1);  // {1,2,3,4}
dq.push_back(5);   // {1,2,3,4,5}
dq.pop_front();    // {2,3,4,5}
std::cout << dq[1]; // 3

// list — doubly linked list, O(1) insert/remove anywhere
std::list<int> lst = {1, 2, 3, 4};
auto it = lst.begin();
std::advance(it, 2);
lst.insert(it, 99);  // {1,2,99,3,4}
lst.remove(2);       // removes all 2s
lst.sort();
lst.reverse();

// forward_list — singly linked, minimal memory
std::forward_list<int> fl = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5};
fl.push_front(0);
fl.sort();
fl.unique(); // remove consecutive duplicates

std::initializer_list

collapsed:: true

#include <initializer_list>

// Accept brace-init in your own functions/classes
void printAll(std::initializer_list<int> vals) {
    for (int v : vals) std::cout << v << " ";
}
printAll({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}); // 1 2 3 4 5

class NumberSet {
    std::vector<int> data;
public:
    NumberSet(std::initializer_list<int> list) : data(list) {}
    void print() { for (int x : data) std::cout << x << " "; }
};

NumberSet ns{10, 20, 30}; // uses initializer_list constructor
ns.print(); // 10 20 30

std::chrono — Time & Duration

collapsed:: true

#include <chrono>
#include <thread>

using namespace std::chrono;

// Get current time
auto start = high_resolution_clock::now();

// Simulate work
std::this_thread::sleep_for(milliseconds(100));

auto end = high_resolution_clock::now();
auto elapsed = duration_cast<milliseconds>(end - start);
std::cout << "Elapsed: " << elapsed.count() << "ms\n";

// Duration literals (C++14)
auto t1 = 2s;    // 2 seconds
auto t2 = 500ms; // 500 milliseconds
auto t3 = 1min;  // 1 minute

// Time point arithmetic
auto now = system_clock::now();
auto future = now + hours(24); // 24 hours from now

// Convert to time_t for display
auto tt = system_clock::to_time_t(now);
std::cout << std::ctime(&tt);

std::random — Random Number Generation

collapsed:: true

#include <random>

// Mersenne Twister engine (high quality)
std::mt19937 rng(std::random_device{}()); // seed with hardware entropy

// Uniform integer distribution
std::uniform_int_distribution<int> dice(1, 6);
std::cout << dice(rng); // random 1-6

// Uniform real distribution
std::uniform_real_distribution<double> prob(0.0, 1.0);
std::cout << prob(rng); // random 0.0-1.0

// Normal distribution
std::normal_distribution<double> normal(0.0, 1.0); // mean=0, stddev=1
std::cout << normal(rng);

// Shuffle a container
std::vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
std::shuffle(v.begin(), v.end(), rng);

std::regex — Regular Expressions

collapsed:: true

#include <regex>
#include <string>

std::string text = "Hello, my email is user@example.com";
std::regex emailPattern(R"(\w+@\w+\.\w+)");

// Check if match exists
if (std::regex_search(text, emailPattern)) {
    std::cout << "Email found!\n";
}

// Extract match
std::smatch match;
if (std::regex_search(text, match, emailPattern)) {
    std::cout << "Found: " << match[0]; // user@example.com
}

// Full match
std::regex intPattern(R"(\d+)");
std::cout << std::regex_match("12345", intPattern); // 1 (true)

// Replace
std::string result = std::regex_replace(text, emailPattern, "[REDACTED]");
std::cout << result;

// Iterate all matches
std::sregex_iterator it(text.begin(), text.end(), emailPattern);
std::sregex_iterator end;
for (; it != end; ++it) std::cout << (*it)[0] << "\n";

std::format (C++20) — Type-Safe String Formatting

collapsed:: true

#include <format>

// Basic formatting
std::string s = std::format("Hello, {}!", "World");
std::cout << s; // Hello, World!

// Multiple args
std::cout << std::format("Name: {}, Age: {}", "Alice", 30);

// Positional args
std::cout << std::format("{0} + {1} = {2}", 3, 4, 7);

// Format specifiers
std::cout << std::format("{:.2f}", 3.14159);  // 3.14
std::cout << std::format("{:>10}", "right");  // right-aligned
std::cout << std::format("{:0>5}", 42);       // 00042
std::cout << std::format("{:#x}", 255);       // 0xff
std::cout << std::format("{:b}", 10);         // 1010 (binary)

// C++23: std::print (directly to stdout)
// std::println("Value: {}", 42);

Scope, Storage & Linkage

collapsed:: true

Variable Scope

collapsed:: true

int global = 10;  // global scope — accessible everywhere in file

void foo() {
    int local = 5;  // local scope — only inside foo()
    {
        int block = 3; // block scope — only inside this {}
        std::cout << local + block; // 8
    }
    // block is destroyed here
}

// Shadowing — inner variable hides outer
int x = 1;
{
    int x = 2;          // shadows outer x
    std::cout << x;     // 2
}
std::cout << x;         // 1

Storage Duration

collapsed:: true

// Automatic — default for local variables, destroyed at end of scope
void foo() { int x = 5; } // x destroyed when foo() returns

// Static — persists for program lifetime
void counter() {
    static int count = 0; // initialized once, persists between calls
    count++;
    std::cout << count;
}
counter(); // 1
counter(); // 2
counter(); // 3

// Dynamic — heap, controlled by new/delete or smart pointers
int* p = new int(42);
delete p;

// Thread-local (C++11) — one copy per thread
thread_local int tls = 0;

Linkage (extern, static)

collapsed:: true

// External linkage — visible across translation units
int globalVar = 42;          // external by default
extern int globalVar;        // declare in other .cpp files

// Internal linkage — visible only in current translation unit
static int fileLocal = 10;   // static at file scope = internal linkage
namespace { int anon = 5; }  // anonymous namespace = internal linkage

// inline variables (C++17) — define in header, one definition across TUs
inline int sharedConst = 100;

// constinit (C++20) — guarantee static init at compile time
constinit int initAtCompileTime = 42;

Bit Manipulation

collapsed:: true

Bitwise Operations

collapsed:: true

int a = 0b1010; // 10
int b = 0b1100; // 12

std::cout << (a & b);  // AND  → 0b1000 = 8
std::cout << (a | b);  // OR   → 0b1110 = 14
std::cout << (a ^ b);  // XOR  → 0b0110 = 6
std::cout << (~a);     // NOT  → -11 (two's complement)
std::cout << (a << 1); // LEFT SHIFT  → 0b10100 = 20
std::cout << (a >> 1); // RIGHT SHIFT → 0b0101 = 5

Common Bit Tricks

collapsed:: true

int n = 42;

// Check if bit i is set
bool isSet = (n >> i) & 1;

// Set bit i
n |= (1 << i);

// Clear bit i
n &= ~(1 << i);

// Toggle bit i
n ^= (1 << i);

// Check if power of 2
bool isPow2 = n > 0 && (n & (n - 1)) == 0;

// Count set bits (popcount)
int bits = __builtin_popcount(n);       // GCC/Clang
int bits2 = std::popcount((unsigned)n); // C++20 <bit>

// Isolate lowest set bit
int lowest = n & (-n);

// Clear lowest set bit
n = n & (n - 1);

// Swap without temp
a ^= b; b ^= a; a ^= b;

std::bitset

collapsed:: true

#include <bitset>

std::bitset<8> bits(0b10110100); // 8-bit set

std::cout << bits;          // 10110100
std::cout << bits[3];       // 0 (bit at position 3)
std::cout << bits.count();  // 4 (number of set bits)
std::cout << bits.size();   // 8

bits.set(0);    // set bit 0 → 10110101
bits.reset(7);  // clear bit 7 → 00110101
bits.flip(1);   // toggle bit 1
bits.flip();    // flip all bits

std::cout << bits.to_ulong();  // convert to unsigned long
std::cout << bits.to_string(); // convert to string

// Bitwise ops on bitsets
std::bitset<8> a(0b1010), b(0b1100);
std::cout << (a & b); // 00001000
std::cout << (a | b); // 00001110
std::cout << (a ^ b); // 00000110

Build Tools & Compilation

collapsed:: true

g++ / clang++ Compilation

collapsed:: true

# Basic compile
g++ main.cpp -o app

# Specify C++ standard
g++ -std=c++17 main.cpp -o app
g++ -std=c++20 main.cpp -o app

# Multiple files
g++ -std=c++17 main.cpp utils.cpp -o app

# Optimization levels
g++ -O0 main.cpp -o app   # no optimization (debug)
g++ -O2 main.cpp -o app   # standard optimization
g++ -O3 main.cpp -o app   # aggressive optimization

# Debug info (for gdb/lldb)
g++ -g -std=c++17 main.cpp -o app

# Warnings
g++ -Wall -Wextra -std=c++17 main.cpp -o app

# Define macros
g++ -DDEBUG main.cpp -o app

# Include path & link library
g++ -I./include -L./lib -lmylib main.cpp -o app

CMake Basics

collapsed:: true

# CMakeLists.txt
cmake_minimum_required(VERSION 3.20)
project(MyApp VERSION 1.0)

set(CMAKE_CXX_STANDARD 20)
set(CMAKE_CXX_STANDARD_REQUIRED True)

# Add executable
add_executable(MyApp main.cpp utils.cpp)

# Add library
add_library(MyLib STATIC lib.cpp)
target_link_libraries(MyApp PRIVATE MyLib)

# Include directories
target_include_directories(MyApp PRIVATE include/)

# Build:
# mkdir build && cd build
# cmake ..
# cmake --build .

Miscellaneous

collapsed:: true

Enums & Scoped Enums

collapsed:: true

// Old-style enum (pollutes namespace)
enum Direction { North, South, East, West };
Direction d = North;

// Scoped enum (C++11) — preferred
enum class Color { Red, Green, Blue };
Color c = Color::Red;

// Enum with underlying type
enum class Status : uint8_t { OK = 0, Error = 1, Pending = 2 };

// Cast to underlying type
int val = static_cast<int>(Color::Green); // 1

Unions & std::variant

collapsed:: true

// C-style union — unsafe, no type tracking
union Data {
    int i;
    float f;
    char c;
};
Data d; d.i = 42;

// std::variant (C++17) — type-safe union
std::variant<int, float, std::string> v = 42;
v = 3.14f;
v = "hello";

std::visit([](auto&& val) { std::cout << val; }, v);

Escape Sequences

collapsed:: true

\n    Newline
\t    Horizontal tab
\r    Carriage return
\\    Backslash
\'    Single quote
\"    Double quote
\0    Null character
\a    Bell/alert
\b    Backspace
\f    Form feed
\v    Vertical tab
\xNN  Hex value (e.g. \x41 = 'A')
\uNNNN Unicode (C++11)

Useful Standard Headers

collapsed:: true

<iostream>      // cin, cout, cerr
<string>        // std::string
<vector>        // std::vector
<array>         // std::array
<map>           // std::map
<set>           // std::set
<unordered_map> // std::unordered_map
<algorithm>     // sort, find, transform...
<numeric>       // accumulate, iota...
<functional>    // std::function, std::bind
<memory>        // smart pointers
<thread>        // std::thread
<mutex>         // std::mutex
<future>        // std::async, std::future
<atomic>        // std::atomic
<fstream>       // file I/O
<sstream>       // string streams
<filesystem>    // fs operations (C++17)
<optional>      // std::optional (C++17)
<variant>       // std::variant (C++17)
<any>           // std::any (C++17)
<span>          // std::span (C++20)
<ranges>        // ranges & views (C++20)
<concepts>      // concepts (C++20)
<format>        // std::format (C++20)
<print>         // std::print (C++23)
<expected>      // std::expected (C++23)
<cmath>         // math functions
<cstring>       // C string functions
<cassert>       // assert()
<stdexcept>     // standard exceptions
<type_traits>   // type traits
<chrono>        // time utilities
<random>        // random number generation
<regex>         // regular expressions

Literals, Type Aliases & Character Manipulation

collapsed:: true

Literals & Suffixes

collapsed:: true

// Integer literals
int dec  = 255;       // decimal
int hex  = 0xFF;      // hexadecimal
int oct  = 0377;      // octal
int bin  = 0b11111111; // binary (C++14)

// Digit separators (C++14)
int million = 1'000'000;
double pi   = 3.141'592'653;

// Type suffixes
auto a = 42;      // int
auto b = 42u;     // unsigned int
auto c = 42l;     // long
auto d = 42ll;    // long long
auto e = 42ul;    // unsigned long
auto f = 3.14f;   // float
auto g = 3.14;    // double
auto h = 3.14l;   // long double

// String literals
const char* s1 = "hello";
const wchar_t* s2 = L"wide";
const char16_t* s3 = u"utf16";
const char32_t* s4 = U"utf32";
const char* s5 = u8"utf8";

// Raw string literals (no escape processing)
const char* path = R"(C:\Users\name\file.txt)";
const char* regex = R"(\d+\.\d+)";

// User-defined literals (C++11)
// operator"" suffix
long double operator"" _km(long double d) { return d * 1000.0; }
long double dist = 5.0_km; // 5000.0

Type Aliases

collapsed:: true

// Old C-style typedef
typedef unsigned long long uint64;
typedef std::vector<int> IntVec;

// Modern using alias (C++11) — preferred
using uint64 = unsigned long long;
using IntVec = std::vector<int>;
using StringMap = std::map<std::string, std::string>;

// Alias templates — typedef can't do this
template <typename T>
using Vec = std::vector<T>;

Vec<int> vi = {1, 2, 3};
Vec<std::string> vs = {"a", "b"};

// Function pointer alias
using Callback = void(*)(int, int);
using Handler = std::function<void(std::string)>;

Character Manipulation (`<cctype>`)

collapsed:: true

#include <cctype>
#include <string>
#include <algorithm>

char c = 'A';

// Classification
std::isalpha(c);   // true — is letter
std::isdigit(c);   // false — is digit
std::isalnum(c);   // true — is letter or digit
std::isspace(c);   // false — is whitespace
std::isupper(c);   // true — is uppercase
std::islower(c);   // false — is lowercase
std::ispunct(c);   // false — is punctuation

// Conversion
std::tolower('A'); // 'a'
std::toupper('a'); // 'A'

// Convert entire string
std::string s = "Hello World";
std::transform(s.begin(), s.end(), s.begin(), ::tolower);
// s = "hello world"

std::transform(s.begin(), s.end(), s.begin(), ::toupper);
// s = "HELLO WORLD"

// Count digits in string
int digits = std::count_if(s.begin(), s.end(), ::isdigit);

Arguments to main & Getting Things Out of Functions

collapsed:: true

argc & argv

collapsed:: true

// int main(int argc, char* argv[])
// argc — argument count (includes program name)
// argv — array of C-strings

int main(int argc, char* argv[]) {
    std::cout << "Program: " << argv[0] << "\n";
    std::cout << "Args: " << argc - 1 << "\n";

    for (int i = 1; i < argc; i++) {
        std::cout << "arg[" << i << "] = " << argv[i] << "\n";
    }
    return 0;
}

// Run: ./app hello world 42
// Program: ./app
// Args: 3
// arg[1] = hello
// arg[2] = world
// arg[3] = 42

// Convert args
int n = std::stoi(argv[1]);
double d = std::stod(argv[2]);

Multiple Return Strategies

collapsed:: true

// 1. Return struct
struct MinMax { int min, max; };
MinMax getMinMax(std::vector<int>& v) {
    return { *std::min_element(v.begin(), v.end()),
             *std::max_element(v.begin(), v.end()) };
}
auto [mn, mx] = getMinMax(v); // structured binding

// 2. Return std::pair
std::pair<bool, int> findFirst(std::vector<int>& v, int target) {
    for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); i++)
        if (v[i] == target) return {true, i};
    return {false, -1};
}
auto [found, idx] = findFirst(v, 3);

// 3. Return std::tuple
std::tuple<int, int, int> divide(int a, int b) {
    return {a / b, a % b, b};
}
auto [quot, rem, divisor] = divide(17, 5);

// 4. Return std::optional (value or nothing)
std::optional<int> safeSqrt(int n) {
    if (n < 0) return std::nullopt;
    return static_cast<int>(std::sqrt(n));
}
if (auto r = safeSqrt(16)) std::cout << *r; // 4

// 5. Output parameters (old style, avoid when possible)
void getCoords(int& x, int& y) { x = 10; y = 20; }
int x, y; getCoords(x, y);

Overflow, Underflow & Numeric Limits

collapsed:: true

Integer Overflow & Underflow

collapsed:: true

#include <climits>
#include <limits>

// Numeric limits
std::cout << INT_MAX;    // 2147483647
std::cout << INT_MIN;    // -2147483648
std::cout << UINT_MAX;   // 4294967295
std::cout << LLONG_MAX;  // 9223372036854775807

// std::numeric_limits (preferred, works for any type)
std::cout << std::numeric_limits<int>::max();
std::cout << std::numeric_limits<int>::min();
std::cout << std::numeric_limits<double>::max();
std::cout << std::numeric_limits<double>::epsilon(); // smallest diff
std::cout << std::numeric_limits<float>::infinity();

// Overflow wraps around for unsigned (defined behavior)
unsigned int u = UINT_MAX;
u++; // u = 0 (wraps)

// Overflow for signed int is UNDEFINED BEHAVIOR
int i = INT_MAX;
i++; // UB — don't do this

// Safe check before overflow
if (a > std::numeric_limits<int>::max() - b) {
    // would overflow
}

Floating Point Precision

collapsed:: true

// Floating point is not exact
double a = 0.1 + 0.2;
std::cout << (a == 0.3);  // 0 (false!) — precision issue

// Correct comparison
double epsilon = 1e-9;
std::cout << (std::abs(a - 0.3) < epsilon); // 1 (true)

// Special values
double inf = std::numeric_limits<double>::infinity();
double nan = std::numeric_limits<double>::quiet_NaN();

std::cout << std::isinf(inf);  // 1
std::cout << std::isnan(nan);  // 1
std::cout << std::isfinite(42.0); // 1

Deep Dive: Classes & Constructors

collapsed:: true

Class Memory Layout & this Pointer

collapsed:: true

class Point {
public:
    int x, y;
    Point(int x, int y) : x(x), y(y) {}

    void print() {
        // 'this' is a pointer to the current object
        std::cout << this->x << ", " << this->y;
        std::cout << " (at " << this << ")\n";
    }

    // Return *this for method chaining
    Point& setX(int x) { this->x = x; return *this; }
    Point& setY(int y) { this->y = y; return *this; }
};

Point p(1, 2);
p.setX(10).setY(20); // method chaining

// sizeof class
std::cout << sizeof(Point); // 8 (two ints, no padding needed)

// Memory layout: members stored in declaration order
// Padding added for alignment
struct Padded { char a; int b; char c; };
std::cout << sizeof(Padded); // likely 12, not 6 (padding)

struct Packed { int b; char a; char c; };
std::cout << sizeof(Packed); // likely 8 (better layout)

Constructor Details

collapsed:: true

class Widget {
    int id;
    std::string name;
    double value;
public:
    // Member initializer list — always prefer over assignment in body
    // Initialized in DECLARATION ORDER, not list order
    Widget(int i, std::string n, double v)
        : id(i), name(std::move(n)), value(v) {}

    // Delegating constructor (C++11) — one constructor calls another
    Widget() : Widget(0, "default", 0.0) {}
    Widget(int i) : Widget(i, "unnamed", 0.0) {}

    // Converting constructor — implicit conversion from int
    Widget(int i) : id(i), name(""), value(0) {}

    // explicit — prevents implicit conversion
    explicit Widget(double v) : id(0), name(""), value(v) {}
};

Widget w1(1, "hello", 3.14);
Widget w2;          // calls delegating constructor
Widget w3 = 42;     // implicit conversion (if not explicit)
// Widget w4 = 3.14; // ERROR if constructor is explicit
Widget w4(3.14);    // OK — explicit call

// = delete — disable a constructor
class NonCopyable {
public:
    NonCopyable() = default;
    NonCopyable(const NonCopyable&) = delete;  // no copy
    NonCopyable& operator=(const NonCopyable&) = delete;
};

// = default — compiler generates default implementation
class Simple {
public:
    Simple() = default;
    ~Simple() = default;
};

Three-Way Comparison & Logical Operators

collapsed:: true

Three-Way Comparison `<=>` (C++20)

collapsed:: true

#include <compare>

// Returns ordering type, not bool
auto r1 = (5 <=> 3);  // std::strong_ordering::greater
auto r2 = (3 <=> 5);  // std::strong_ordering::less
auto r3 = (5 <=> 5);  // std::strong_ordering::equal

// Ordering types:
// strong_ordering  — for integers (equal means identical)
// weak_ordering    — for floats (equivalent but not identical)
// partial_ordering — for floats with NaN (incomparable possible)

// Check result
if (r1 > 0) std::cout << "greater";
if (r1 < 0) std::cout << "less";
if (r1 == 0) std::cout << "equal";

// Auto-generate all comparison operators from <=>
struct Point {
    int x, y;
    auto operator<=>(const Point&) const = default;
    // Now ==, !=, <, >, <=, >= all work automatically
};

Point a{1, 2}, b{1, 3};
std::cout << (a < b);   // true
std::cout << (a == b);  // false

// Custom spaceship operator
struct Version {
    int major, minor, patch;
    std::strong_ordering operator<=>(const Version& o) const {
        if (auto c = major <=> o.major; c != 0) return c;
        if (auto c = minor <=> o.minor; c != 0) return c;
        return patch <=> o.patch;
    }
    bool operator==(const Version&) const = default;
};

Short-Circuit Evaluation

collapsed:: true

// && stops at first false
// || stops at first true

int x = 0;
if (x != 0 && 10 / x > 1) { // safe — 10/x never evaluated if x==0
    std::cout << "ok";
}

// Useful for null checks
std::string* p = nullptr;
if (p != nullptr && p->length() > 0) { // safe
    std::cout << *p;
}

// Side effects in conditions (avoid, but know it exists)
int a = 0, b = 0;
if (++a || ++b) { // b is never incremented
    std::cout << a << " " << b; // 1 0
}

Function-Like Entities

collapsed:: true

Functors (Function Objects)

collapsed:: true

// A class with operator() — behaves like a function but has state
class Multiplier {
    int factor;
public:
    Multiplier(int f) : factor(f) {}
    int operator()(int x) const { return x * factor; }
};

Multiplier triple(3);
std::cout << triple(5);  // 15
std::cout << triple(10); // 30

// Used with STL algorithms
std::vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
std::transform(v.begin(), v.end(), v.begin(), Multiplier(2));
// v = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

std::bind (C++11)

collapsed:: true

#include <functional>

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

// Bind first argument to 10
auto add10 = std::bind(add, 10, std::placeholders::_1);
std::cout << add10(5);  // 15
std::cout << add10(20); // 30

// Bind member function
class Printer {
public:
    void print(std::string msg) { std::cout << msg; }
};

Printer p;
auto fn = std::bind(&Printer::print, &p, std::placeholders::_1);
fn("Hello"); // Hello

// Note: prefer lambdas over std::bind in modern C++
auto add10_lambda = [](int x) { return add(10, x); };

std::invoke (C++17)

collapsed:: true

#include <functional>

// Uniformly call any callable: function, lambda, functor, member fn
int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

std::invoke(add, 3, 4);                    // 7 — free function
std::invoke([](int x){ return x*2; }, 5);  // 10 — lambda

struct Foo { int val; int get() { return val; } };
Foo f{42};
std::invoke(&Foo::get, f);   // 42 — member function
std::invoke(&Foo::val, f);   // 42 — member variable

Ranges Library (C++20)

collapsed:: true

Views & Pipelines

collapsed:: true

#include <ranges>
#include <vector>

std::vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};

// filter — keep only even numbers
auto evens = v | std::views::filter([](int x){ return x % 2 == 0; });

// transform — square each
auto squared = evens | std::views::transform([](int x){ return x * x; });

// Chain (lazy — nothing computed until iterated)
for (int x : squared) std::cout << x << " "; // 4 16 36 64 100

// take / drop
auto first3 = v | std::views::take(3);   // {1, 2, 3}
auto skip2  = v | std::views::drop(2);   // {3, 4, 5, ...}

// reverse
auto rev = v | std::views::reverse;

// iota — generate sequence
for (int i : std::views::iota(1, 6)) std::cout << i; // 12345

// keys / values (for maps)
std::map<std::string, int> m{{"a",1},{"b",2}};
for (auto& k : m | std::views::keys) std::cout << k;   // ab
for (auto& v : m | std::views::values) std::cout << v; // 12

Range Algorithms

collapsed:: true

#include <algorithm>
#include <ranges>

std::vector<int> v = {5, 3, 1, 4, 2};

// Ranges versions — no begin/end needed
std::ranges::sort(v);                    // {1,2,3,4,5}
std::ranges::reverse(v);                 // {5,4,3,2,1}

auto it = std::ranges::find(v, 3);
bool found = std::ranges::contains(v, 3); // C++23

std::ranges::sort(v, std::greater{});    // descending
std::ranges::sort(v, {}, &MyStruct::key); // sort by member

// Projections — transform before comparing
struct Person { std::string name; int age; };
std::vector<Person> people = {{"Bob",30},{"Alice",25}};
std::ranges::sort(people, {}, &Person::age); // sort by age
std::ranges::sort(people, {}, &Person::name); // sort by name

Coroutines (C++20)

collapsed:: true

Coroutine Basics

collapsed:: true

A coroutine is a function that can suspend and resume execution.
Uses three keywords: co_await, co_yield, co_return
Requires a promise type and a coroutine handle — usually provided by a library.

#include <coroutine>
#include <iostream>

// Minimal generator coroutine
struct Generator {
    struct promise_type {
        int current_value;
        Generator get_return_object() {
            return Generator{std::coroutine_handle<promise_type>::from_promise(*this)};
        }
        std::suspend_always initial_suspend() { return {}; }
        std::suspend_always final_suspend() noexcept { return {}; }
        std::suspend_always yield_value(int v) {
            current_value = v; return {};
        }
        void return_void() {}
        void unhandled_exception() { std::terminate(); }
    };

    std::coroutine_handle<promise_type> handle;
    Generator(std::coroutine_handle<promise_type> h) : handle(h) {}
    ~Generator() { if (handle) handle.destroy(); }

    bool next() { handle.resume(); return !handle.done(); }
    int value() { return handle.promise().current_value; }
};

Generator counter(int start, int end) {
    for (int i = start; i <= end; i++)
        co_yield i;  // suspend and yield value
}

auto gen = counter(1, 5);
while (gen.next()) std::cout << gen.value() << " "; // 1 2 3 4 5

co_await — Async Suspension

collapsed:: true

// co_await suspends the coroutine until the awaitable completes
// Used for async I/O, networking, task scheduling

// Conceptual async task (real impl needs a scheduler/runtime)
Task<int> fetchData() {
    auto result = co_await asyncHttpGet("https://api.example.com");
    co_return result.statusCode;
}

// std::suspend_always — always suspends
// std::suspend_never  — never suspends (runs to completion)

// In practice, use a library:
// - cppcoro (popular coroutine library)
// - Asio (networking with coroutines)
// - C++23 std::generator for simple generators

Modules (C++20)

collapsed:: true

Module Basics

collapsed:: true

Modules replace #include — faster compilation, no header guards, no macro leakage.

// math.ixx (or math.cppm) — module interface unit
export module math;  // declare module

export int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }  // exported — visible to importers

int helper() { return 42; }  // NOT exported — internal only

export namespace Math {
    double pi = 3.14159;
    double square(double x) { return x * x; }
}

// main.cpp — import the module
import math;

int main() {
    std::cout << add(3, 4);       // 7
    std::cout << Math::square(5); // 25
    // helper() — ERROR, not exported
}

Module Partitions & std import

collapsed:: true

// Partition — split large module into parts
export module mylib:utils;  // partition "utils" of module "mylib"
export void utilFunc() {}

// Primary module imports its partitions
export module mylib;
export import :utils;

// Import standard library (C++23, compiler support varies)
import std;  // import everything
import std.core; // core subset

// Compile with modules (g++/clang++)
// g++ -std=c++20 -fmodules-ts math.ixx main.cpp -o app

Building Custom Iterators

collapsed:: true

Iterator Concepts

collapsed:: true

Iterator Category    Operations              Example
Input               ++, *, ==, !=           istream_iterator
Output              ++, *=                  ostream_iterator
Forward             ++, *, ==, !=           forward_list::iterator
Bidirectional       ++, --, *, ==, !=       list::iterator
Random Access       ++, --, +, -, [], <     vector::iterator
Contiguous (C++20)  Random Access + contiguous memory  vector::iterator

Custom Iterator Implementation

collapsed:: true

#include <iterator>

template <typename T>
class Range {
    T start_, end_, step_;
public:
    Range(T start, T end, T step = 1) : start_(start), end_(end), step_(step) {}

    struct Iterator {
        using iterator_category = std::forward_iterator_tag;
        using value_type = T;
        using difference_type = std::ptrdiff_t;
        using pointer = T*;
        using reference = T&;

        T current, step;
        Iterator(T c, T s) : current(c), step(s) {}

        T operator*() const { return current; }
        Iterator& operator++() { current += step; return *this; }
        Iterator operator++(int) { auto tmp = *this; ++(*this); return tmp; }
        bool operator==(const Iterator& o) const { return current >= o.current; }
        bool operator!=(const Iterator& o) const { return !(*this == o); }
    };

    Iterator begin() { return Iterator(start_, step_); }
    Iterator end()   { return Iterator(end_, step_); }
};

// Usage — works with range-based for and STL algorithms
for (int i : Range(1, 10, 2)) std::cout << i << " "; // 1 3 5 7 9

Range<double> r(0.0, 1.0, 0.25);
std::vector<double> v(r.begin(), r.end()); // {0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75}

Library & Frameworks
id:: 673ac308-24d0-40b6-b0d7-a4b6cac5b79a
- [[Cpp for Unreal]] - Unreal-specific C++ patterns: UObject system, UPROPERTY/UFUNCTION macros, TArray/TMap, delegates, GC, networking replication.
- [[Standard Template Library]] - Vectors, maps, sets, algorithms, iterators — the backbone of every C++ program.
- [[Boost]] - Peer-reviewed libraries extending C++: threading, filesystem, smart pointers, regex, and more.
- [[Qt]] - Cross-platform GUI framework with networking, database, and mobile support.
- [[OpenCV]] - Computer vision library for real-time image processing and object detection.
- [[Simple and Fast Multimedia Library]] - Graphics, sound, and input for game development.
- [[Eigen]] - Template library for linear algebra, matrices, and vectors — used in ML and scientific computing.
- [[Cpp REST SDK]] - Cross-platform RESTful web services and HTTP communication.
- [[POCO Cpp Portable Components]] - HTTP, database, JSON/XML parsing for networked applications.
- [[Google Test]] - Unit testing framework with mock objects and assertions.
- [[ACE Adaptive Communicative Environment]] - High-performance networked and real-time systems.
- [[Threading Building Blocks]] - Intel's parallel programming library for multi-core performance.
- [[Simple DirectMedia Layer]] - Cross-platform multimedia: audio, graphics, input for games.
- [[Catch2]] - Modern, header-only C++ testing framework — simpler than gtest.
- [[nlohmann json]] - Single-header JSON library, the most popular C++ JSON parser.
- [[Spdlog]] - Fast, header-only logging library for C++.
More Learn
- Explore the following links for valuable resources, communities, and tools to enhance your skills : -

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Introduction

Advantages

Disadvantages

Basics

Hello World & Entry Point

Comments

Variables & Data Types

Primitive Data Types Table

Type Modifiers

auto & Type Deduction (C++11)

User Input

Operators

Type Casting

Control Flow

if / else if / else

Switch Statement

Ternary Operator

Loops

break / continue / goto

Functions

Declaration, Definition & Calling

Default Arguments

Function Overloading

Pass by Value, Reference & Pointer

Inline Functions

Recursive Functions

Lambda Functions (C++11)

std::function & Function Pointers

Pointers & References

Pointers Basics

Pointer Arithmetic

Null Pointer & nullptr (C++11)

References

const Pointers

Dynamic Memory (new / delete)

Arrays & Strings

C-Style Arrays

std::array (C++11) — Preferred over C arrays

std::string

String Views (C++17) — Zero-copy string reference

OOP — Object-Oriented Programming

Classes & Objects

Constructors & Destructors

Access Modifiers

Getters & Setters (Encapsulation)

Static Members

Friend Functions & Classes

Operator Overloading

OOP — Inheritance

Single Inheritance

Inheritance Types

Multi-Level & Multiple Inheritance

Virtual Inheritance (Diamond Problem Fix)

Constructor Chaining

OOP — Polymorphism

Virtual Functions & Runtime Polymorphism

Pure Virtual Functions & Abstract Classes

override & final (C++11)

vtable & vptr (How Virtual Works Internally)

OOP — Advanced Concepts

Rule of Three / Five / Zero

Move Semantics & rvalue References (C++11)

RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization)

Smart Pointers (C++11)

unique_ptr — Exclusive Ownership

shared_ptr — Shared Ownership

weak_ptr — Non-Owning Observer

Smart Pointer Comparison

Templates & Generic Programming

Function Templates

Class Templates

Template Specialization